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All theories and concepts on translation at New Century

Translation is ultimately a human activity that allows people human to exchange ideas and thoughts, regardless of the different languages used. At Wassety (2001) considers the phenomenon of translation as legitimate children the phenomenon of language, since originally, when humans spread over the land, their languages and they needed a medium through which persons speak a certain language (tongue) to interact with other people who spoke a different language.

Translation is, in Enani's (1997) point of view, a modern science at the interface of philosophy, linguistics, psychology and sociology. Literary translation in particular, is important in all these science, visual arts, and cultural and intellectual studTranslation is, in the words of Chabba (1984:5), "a meticulous," and not yet reduced to strict scientific standards, and allows differences known to exist between different personalities. Translation is a very subjective art, especially when it comes to issues outside the scope of science where concepts are defined more precisely often expressed by certain generally accepted terms.

In the final analysis, translation is a science, an art and a skill. It is a science in the sense that it requires a thorough knowledge of the structure and composition of the two languages in question. It is an art, requiring artistic talent to reconstruct the original text in the form of a product that is presentable to the reader who is not supposed that should be familiar with the original. It is also a skill, since it involves the power to mitigate any difficulties in translation, and the ability to provide translation something that has no equal in the target language.

In translation, vocabulary, the depth of culture and vision of the translator could certainly have very visible in his work. Another translator might produce a reasonably acceptable version of the same text, which, however, may well reflect a completely different context different culture, sensitivity and temperament. Such differences can, according to Chabba's (1984), to the detriment of the merits of any translator. This is simply because translation is decidedly a more difficult job than creation.

The question of the possibility of translation is seen as fundamental to any understanding of what language is. If the translation is not possible, then what is it that language? The translation is possible in the sense that humans have been doing (or who say they have done) to many thousands of years, but we've been doing without any guarantee that the message was sent in fact the message was received. If I ask you to open the window and then do exactly that, it may not be too presumptuous to think that the message has been correctly translated, but in the case of many language possible cases – probably the majority – that sort of ambiguity can not be confirmed.

Even in this case, their "compliance" with my application may be the result of sheer coincidence, my lack of understanding of what you done, or some factor completely unrelated.

Translation between languages is not the entire translation, but is a special limiting case of illumination a much wider phenomenon. The need to translate the word (whether within or between languages) presents serious practical difficulties for many people in the day. However, it is more deeply written texts that present the theoretical problem of translation, a "literal" translation would be unthinkable in a completely oral culture. Indeed, the notion of "fidelity" to an "original" must be very different in an oral culture in a printed version of the dominated culture.

Moreover, written texts raise the question of "translation" between speech and writing. The creation alphabets and the amortization of oral traditions, at least, authorize or permit the removal from the language of its meaningful content – after all, a "translation" has already occurred in the amortization of the spoken word. Content or medium may change, regardless of the other. So Socrates attacked by writing in the Phaedrus: the writing is both powerful and dangerous – it's magic – and the possibility that the translation will transform the words beyond recognition threatens the search for truth.

Only two centuries after Socrates distinguishes between the living, the word derives from seminal of the dialectic of mind and the written word poison that kills the memory, the Jewish scribes translated the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. This was at a time when what Walter Ong chirograph called culture was growing rapidly in importance, a time when alphabetic writing was becoming more influential in the

World Mediterranean, although oral culture still dominated. It is this cultural transformation, and the attendant threat of loss of consciousness, that Judaism, Christianity and Islam – religions in which the written word has had an enormous influence – responded in their different points of view of translatability of Scripture.

The question translation has profound theological dimensions. The question of writing – its nature, meaning and authority – is inseparable from the translation.

Even in our modern world, readers tend to regard the original work – the "Holy Scriptures" or secular literature – as far as higher more authority than any of its translated versions. In Islam this trend comes to an end. Muslims believe that Allah gave his revelation through Muhammad Arabic, and the only true and correct Koran is the Koran in Arabic. Arabic is the divine language. The material body of the text and its meaning is held to be inseparable, and the problem of translation is eliminated, because it denies the possibility of a translation. Or rather, the problem is disguised and absorbed into the larger problem hermeneutic – The more general question of the meaning of the text.

In contrast, Jewish and Christian traditions permit a very early date – with the Septuagint (ca. 200 BC) and the New Testament (first century AD) – the translation of both the language and concepts of the Hebrew Scriptures. Hebrew language is considered sacred at least in some communities Jewish, and Jews remain ambivalent towards the state of the Torah in the translation. A legend on the wording of the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, God favors this act of translation through unanimity miraculous work of translators seventy.

However, in another account, God's disapproval of translation occurs through the unnatural darkness on earth.

In the oldest stratum of the Hebrew Scriptures, the story of the Tower of Babel

(Gen.11 :1-9) implicitly denies that any human language is the language of God, and explicitly states that "the language of all the earth "was" confused "by God. The multiplicity of languages is a punishment (or present?) of God: the translation is both necessary and impossible. It the goal of Kabbalah, the mystical rabbinic interpretation of Scripture, to find reflected in our post-Babelians human languages, especially languages of the Torah, echoes the true language of God.

Because the Hebrew alphabet (in pre-Masoretic form) has no vowels, the letters can not say, without added interpretation by the reader. The gap between written and oral is much larger than an English or Greek text. By itself the Hebrew text makes no sense and depends on the vocalisation of meaning, and yet, like Canon, is always before the word, any authoritative interpretation. Here the distinction between material, written text and its meaning is quite clear. Meaningful language arises from the difference in meaning.

Criteria for a good translation

A good translation is one that carries all of the original ideas and their structural and cultural characteristics. Massoud (1988) established criteria for a good translation as follows:

1. A good translation is easy to understand.
2. A good translation is fluid and smooth.
3. A good translation is idiomatic.
4. A good translation conveys a certain extent, the literary subtleties the original.
5. A good translation distinguishes between the metaphorical and literal.
6. A good translation recreates the culture / historical context from the original.
7. A good translation makes explicit what is implicit in abbreviations, and allusions to sayings, songs and rhymes.
8. A good translation will convey as much as possible the original text's meaning, (pp. 19-24).

El Shafey (1985: 93) suggests other criteria for a good translation, which includes three fundamental principles:

1. The knowledge of the grammar of the language of origin, plus the knowledge vocabulary and good understanding of the text results.
2. The translator's ability to reconstitute the given text (source language text) in the language destination.
3. The translation must capture the style or atmosphere of the original text, but should have all the ease of original composition.

From a different perspective, El Touny (2001) focused on the distinction between different types of translation. He said there are eight types of translation: word for word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaptive translation, free translation, idiomatic translation, and communicative translation. He advocated the latter type as that conveys meaning from the context, respecting the form and structure of the original and that is easily understandable by the readers of the target language.

The Zeini (1994) did not seem satisfied with these criteria to evaluate the quality of translation. It is therefore suggested a pragmatic approach and style model for quality assessment in translation. She explains that the model places equal emphasis on the pragmatic component, Apart from the stylistic component in translation. This model covers a set of criteria, which are divided into two main categories related criteria the content and form related to criteria and it is expected that following these criteria, "translators can minimize the possibility of errors or losses occur, and eliminate the problems of unacceptability.

Translation problems

Translation problems can be divided into language problems and cultural problems: language problems are the grammatical differences, lexical ambiguity and ambiguity sense, cultural issues that relate to the different characteristics of the situation. This classification coincides with that of El Zeini when we identified six main problems in translation from Arabic into English and vice versa, that are lexicon, morphology, syntax, textual differences, rhetorical differences, and factors pragmatic.

Another level of difficulty in the translation work is what As-Sayyd (1995) found when they conducted a study to compare and evaluate some problems in translating the names of the fairs of Allah in the Koran. He noted that some of the major problems of translation are translation, under translation and the untranslatable.

Culture constitutes another major problem confronting the translators. A bad model translated pieces of literature can to misconceptions about the original. So Fionty (2001) thought that badly translated texts distort the original in tone and cultural references, while Zidan (1994) wondered about the possible role of the content of culture as a variable in order to motivate improvement or hinder the achievement of the linguistic, communicative and, more importantly, cultural objectives of EFL (English as Foreign) Language education. Hassan (1997) emphasized this idea by pointing out the importance of paying attention to the translation of irony in the context of source language. He clarified that not only the transfer of the characteristics of the translated language, but also their cultural characteristics.

The work of the translator

These problems and others, direct our attention to the work and character translators, how to attack a text to translate, and processes followed to get to the final product of a well-translated text in the target language.

Enani (1994:5) define the translator as a writer formulates ideas into words to the readers. The only difference between him and the original author is that these ideas are of the latter ". Another difference is that the translator's work is even more difficult than that of the artist. The artist is supposed to directly produce their ideas and emotions in your own language however complicated their thoughts. The translator's liability is greater, for s / ha to relive the experiences of a different person. Chabba (1984) considers that But exactly the translator can delve into the depths of the mind of the writer, some formidable linguistic and other difficulties that may still prevent two texts are completely equivalent. Therefore, not only perceive the differences between a text and its translation, but also between different translations of one piece

In procedural terms, (1985:95 El Shafey) states: "A translator first analyzes the message, splitting it into its simplest and structurally lighter elements, transfers at this level in the target language in a way that is most appropriate for the target audience. A translator instinctively concludes that it is better to transfer the "core level" in a language appropriate level "core" in the language of "receiver".

Translation skills for novice translators

This study suggests four macro-skills for any translator beginning his work in the field of translation. These are: reading comprehension, research, analysis and composition skills. These macro-skills include many sub-or micro-skills to master.

Reading Comprehension

While we are translating, we do not of our business as detailed in phases. After making the first translations, many automatic devices that come in works that allow us to translate more quickly, at the same time, we are increasingly aware of our activity.

1. The first phase of the translation process consists of reading the text. The act of reading, first, is a matter of psychology, because it refers to our perceptual system. Reading, like translation, is, for the most part a process unconscious. If conscious, we would have to consume much more time on the spot. Most of the mental processes involved in the act of reading are automatic and unconscious. Because of this common nature and little known at the same time, in our view, it is important to analyze the reading process as precisely as possible. The works of some perception psychologists will be helpful to further our understanding of this first phase of the translation process.

When a person reads, his brain is occupied with many tasks in such rapid sequences that everything seems to be happening simultaneously. The eye looks (from left to right as far as many Western languages are concerned, or from right to left or from top to bottom in other languages) a series of graphic signs (graphemes) in succession, giving life to syllables, words, sentences, paragraphs, sections, chapters and texts.

Simply reading a text is itself an act of translation. When we read, not keep the words we read in our minds, as with the data entered via a keyboard or scanner into a computer. After reading, we have no record photographic or hearing in the mind of the text read. We have a set of prints in place. We recall some words or phrases with precision, while all the rest of text is translated from verbal language in a language that belongs to another system of signs, which are largely unknown: the mental language.

Mental processing of verbal material is of a syntactic read when trying to reconstruct the possible structure of the sentence, ie the relations between its elements. On the contrary, is semantic in nature, when identifying the relevant areas within the semantic field of a word or phrase, and is pragmatic when it comes to the coincidence logic of possible meanings with the general context of cooperation and verbal text.

The difference between a reader and a critic is negligible: the reader trying to understand is the same attitude as the critic, a reader is aware that systematic, methodical, and self. While reading, the individual reads and perceives what you read, interpretations and drawing conclusions about the possible intentions of the author of the message.

Holmes (1988) suggested that the translation process is actually a multi-level process, while we are translating sentences, we have a map of the original text in our minds and at the same time, a map of the type of text we want to produce in the target language. Even as they are translated into series, we have this structural concept so that each sentence in our translation is determined not only by the original sentence, but also by the two maps-the original text and the translated text, as we take forward to translate.

The translation process should therefore be considered as a complex system in which understanding, processing and projection of the translated text are interdependent parts of a structure. Therefore, can present as does Hnig (1991), the existence of a "central processing unit" supervising the coordination of different mental processes (those related with reading, interpretation and writing) and at the same time projecting a map of the text to be.

Translators beginners as well as translators Students are advised to master the following basic skills of reading comprehension.

• Read by essence and main ideas.
• For more details.
• Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one or more components of the clause structure determinations prefixes suffixes, roots, word order, punctuation sentence pattern, etc.
• Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one or more of the analysis contextual synonyms, antonyms, examples, etc.
• Identify the style of the writer: literary, scientific, technical, informational, persuasive, argumentative, etc.
• Identify the level of language used in the text: standard jargon, religious
• Identify cultural references in the choice of words in the text.

Cultural Translation

Culture and intercultural competence and awareness arising from the experience of culture, are a much more complex phenomenon than it may seem that the translator. On more than one translator is aware of the complexity of the differences between cultures, the best translator s / he will be. It is probably right to say that there has never been a time when the translator community was aware of cultural differences and their importance for translation. Translation theorists have been aware of the problems related to cultural knowledge and cultural differences, at least from ancient Rome. Cultural knowledge and cultural differences have been a major focus of the training of translators and translation theory has meanwhile been existence. The main concern has traditionally been with words and phrases that are so strongly and exclusively based on a culture that is almost impossible to translate in terms: – Verbal or otherwise – of another. Long debate had been held then, to paraphrase, when using the nearest local equivalent, where the currency of a new word to translate literally, and when transcribing. All these "untranslatable" cultural-bound words and phrases continued to fascinate translators and translation theorists.

The theory developed in this field was presented by Mounin in 1963, who stressed the importance of the meaning of a lexical item claiming that only considering that this notion translates point play its role properly. The problem with this theory is that all the cultural elements are not only the elements, what a translator should do in case of the cultural implications that are involved in the background knowledge of readers of SL?

The notion of culture is essential to consider the implications for translation and, despite differences of opinion as to whether language is part of the culture or not, the two notions of culture and the tongue appear to be inseparable. In 1964, Nida discussed the problems of correspondence in translation, assigned equal importance to linguistic and cultural differences between the SL and TL and concluded that differences between cultures can cause severe complications for the translator that differences in the structure of language. He further explained that in parallel to the culture often provide a common understanding despite significant formal changes in the translation. According to him, the consequences for cultural translation is therefore of great importance, as well as lexical concerns.

Definitions of formal and dynamic equivalence Nida in 1964 consider the cultural implications for translation. According to him, a "gloss translation" mostly typifies formal equivalence where form and content is reproduced as faithfully as possible and the TL reader is capable of "much as they can understand the habits, mode of thought, expression and means" of SL context. In contrast to this idea, the dynamic equivalence "tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of their own culture," without insisting that "understanding the cultural patterns of the source language context. According to him, problems can vary depending on differences cultural and linguistic differences between the two (or more) languages concerned.

You could say that the first concept in cultural studies, cultural translation turn in 1978 was presaged by work in polysystems and translation rules by Even-Zohar and Toury 1980. They reject the linguistic theories of translation and refer to as having passed the word to the text as a unit, but not beyond. They themselves go beyond the language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on how it impacts the culture and the limitations of translation and the great questions of context, history and convention. Therefore, the step of translation as a text for translation as culture and politics is what they call a cultural shift of translation studies and became the ground for a metaphor, Bassnett and Lefevere approved in 1990. In fact the cultural turn is the metaphor adopted by cultural studies oriented translation theories to refer to the analysis translation in its cultural context, political and ideological.

Since 1990, the shift has expanded to incorporate a wide range of approaches to culture studies and is a true indicator of the interdisciplinary nature of contemporary translation studies. As a result of this cultural turn call cultural studies has taken interest increasingly interested in the translation. One consequence has been to bring together researchers from different disciplines. It is important to mention here that these theorists have maintained their own cultural ideology and programs that drive their own critique. These cultural approaches have expanded the horizons of translation studies new, but at the same time there has been a strong element of conflict between them. It is worth mentioning that the existence of such differences in perspectives is inevitable.

In mid-1980 introduced the theory of skopos Vermeer is a Greek word 'objective' or 'purpose'. It falls within the theory of translation in a technical term for the purpose of translation and the action of the translation. Skopos theory focuses especially in the purpose of translation, which determines the translation method and strategies that are to be met in order to produce an adequate functional outcome. The TT result is that Vermeer asks Translatum. Therefore, knowing why, SL will be translated and what the role of TT will be crucial for the translator.

In 1984, Reiss and Vermeer in his book with the title "basis for a General Theory of Translation" focused on the basic rules underlying 'of this theory, which involve: 1 – A Translatum (or TT) is determined by its skopos, 2 – A TT is an offer of information in a culture TL stations and considering an offer from a source information and the SL culture. This refers to the ST and TT to its role as linguistic and cultural context in question. The translator is once again the key player in the process of intercultural communication and production of Translatum due to the effects of translation.

In 1992, Coulthard highlightd the importance of defining the ideal reader for whom the author attributes the knowledge of certain facts, memories of certain experiences … addition to some opinions, preferences and prejudices and a certain level of linguistic competence. In considering these issues, the degree to which the author may be influenced by such notions that depend on their own sense of belonging to a particular socio-cultural group should not be forgotten.

Coulthard said that once the ideal reader ST has been determined, considerations must be made on the TT. He said the first and main difficulty of the translator is the construction of a new ideal reader who, even if you have the academic, professional and intellectual equal to the original reader, will have very different expectations and cultural knowledge texts.

In the case of extract translated here, is debatable whether the ideal TT reader has "very different expectations of the text, however, their cultural knowledge is almost certain to vary considerably.

Applied to the criteria used to determine the ideal ST reader it should be noted that few conditions are successfully met by the ideal TT reader potential. Is Moreover, historical and cultural facts, is likely to be known in detail, along with specific cultural situations described. Furthermore, although considering the level language proficiency to be more or less the same for the ST and TT reader, certain differences can possibly be observed in response to the use of culturally lexicon specific to be considered when translating. Despite certain opinions, preferences and prejudices can be incorporated by TT reader's instinct that can compare his own experience, we must remember that these do not match the experience of the social situation of the ST reader. Therefore, Coulthard said that above all the basics social and cultural rights remain problematic when considering the cultural implications for translation.

Equivalence in Translation

1.1 Vinay and Darbelnet and its definition of equivalence in translation

Vinay and Darbelnet equivalence oriented view of translation as a procedure that "plays the same position as in the original, albeit with a completely different language. They also suggest that if this procedure is applied for the translation process, which can maintain the stylistic effects of the original text in the TL text. For them, the equivalence is therefore the ideal method when the translator has to deal with proverbs, idioms, cliches, nominal or adjectival phrases, onomatopoeia of animal sounds.

With regard to expressions equivalents between language pairs, Vinay and Darbelnet say they are acceptable as long as they are listed in a bilingual dictionary as' full-time equivalents. Without But later note that the glossaries and collections of idiomatic expressions "can never be exhaustive. The authors conclude by saying that "the need to establish equivalence arises from the situation and is in the position of the text that the translators have to find a solution. " Indeed, they argue that even if semantic equivalent of an expression in the quoted text is in a dictionary or glossary, is not enough, and does not guarantee a satisfactory translation. That provide a number of examples to prove his theory, and the following term appears in your list: Take a is a fixed expression that have a French translation Prenez-equivalent in the United Nations. However, if the expression appeared as an ad next to a basket of free samples in a large tent, translator would have to find an equivalent term in a similar situation and the use of the term Free Sample.
1.2 Jakobson and the concept of equivalence the difference

Study of Roman Jakobson equivalence gave new impetus to the theoretical analysis of translation since it introduced the concept of 'equivalence in difference'. On the basis of his semiotic approach to language and his aphorism "there signatum without signum '(1959:232) suggests three types of translation:

• Intralingual (within a language, ie rewording or paraphrase)
• Interlingual (two languages)
• Intersemiotic (between sign systems)

Jakobson says that in the case of interlingual translation the translator makes use of synonyms for getting the message through ST. This means that in interlingual translation no full equivalence between units code. According to his theory, "translation involves two equivalent messages in two different codes" (p. 233). Jakobson will say that from a grammatical point of view of language may be different from each other to a greater or lesser degree, but this does not mean that the translation may not be possible, in other words, the translator may face the problem of not finding a translation equivalent. He acknowledges that "whenever there is a deficiency, the terminology may be qualified and amplified loan or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic shifts, and finally, by circumlocutions. Jakobson provides a number of examples by comparing structures in English and Russian language, and explains that in cases where there is no literal equivalent of a particular word or phrase, ST, then it is the translator to choose the most appropriate way to do this in TT.

There seems to be some similarity between the theory of Vinay and Darbelnet of translation procedures and theory Jakobson's translation. Both theories emphasize the fact that, whenever a linguistic approach is not appropriate to carry out a translation, translator can rely on other procedures, such as loans, translations, neologisms and the like. Both theories recognize the limitations of linguistics theory and argue that translation can not be impossible, since there are several methods that the translator can choose. The role of the translator as the person who decides how carry out the translation is emphasized in both theories. Both Vinay and Darbelnet and Jakobson conceive the task of translation as something that can always be out from one language to another, regardless of cultural or grammatical differences between ST and TT.

We conclude that Jakobson's theory is essentially based on semiotic approach to translation, according to which the translator has to recode the ST message and then s / ha to transmit a message equivalent to the TC.

1.3 Nida and Taber: formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence

Nida said that there are two different types of equivalence, ie equivalence formal, in the second edition of Nida and Taber (1982) is known as formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence. correspondence formal 'focuses attention on the message itself, both in form and content, unlike dynamic equivalence which is based on "the principle of equivalent effect" (1964:159). In the second edition (1982) and its work, the two theorists provide a more detailed explanation of each type of equivalence.

Correspondence consists of a formal element of TL which represents the closest equivalent of a word or phrase in SL. Nida and Taber make clear that there are always formal equivalents between language pairs. By therefore suggest that these formal equivalents should be used whenever possible if the translation is aimed at achieving formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of equivalents formal can sometimes have serious consequences for the TT since the translation is not easily understood by the target (audience Fawcett, 1997). Nida and Taber own words "In general, formal correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the host language, and therefore distorts the message and to make the receptor to misunderstand or to labor too hard. "

Dynamic Equivalence is defined as a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the original meaning of the wording so that TL activate the same impact on the audience CT and original writing on the public ST. Argue that "Often, the shape of the original text is changed, but as long as the change follows the transformation rules back in the source language, the consistency of context transfer, and language processing in the receiver, the message is preserved and the translation is faithful "(Nida and Taber, 1982:200).

One can easily see that Nida is in favor of the application of dynamic equivalence as a more effective translation procedure. This is perfectly understandable if we take into account the context of the situation in which Nida was the translation phenomenon, ie the translation of the Bible. Thus, the product of the process translation, which is the text of the TL, must have the same impact on different readers who were treated. Despite using a linguistic approach to translation, Nida is much more interested in the text message, or in other words, as semantics.

1.4 Catford and the introduction Translation changes

Catford approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from that taken by Nida from Catford had a preference for an approach more linguistic and translation based on this approach is based on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution to the field of theory translation is to introduce the concepts of rates and changes in the translation. Catford proposes broad types of translation in terms of three criteria:

1. The scope of translation (full vs. partial translation Translation);
2. The grammatical status in which the translation equivalence is established (range bound vs. translation translation without limits);
3. The levels of language involved in translation (full translation in the translation vs. restricted).

We refer only the second type of translation, as this is referred to the concept of equivalence, and then will analyze the notion of translation changes, developed by Catford, based on the distinction between formal correspondence and textual equivalence. In the range bound an equivalent translation requested in the TL for each word, or for each morpheme are in the ST. One problem with formal correspondence is that, despite being a useful tool for use in comparative linguistics, it seems that is not really important in terms of assessing translation equivalence between ST and TT. For this reason, we now Catford other dimension to the correspondence, ie the textual that occurs when any text or portion of text is "once special … to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text. "this is implemented by a process of commutation of sentence, under which" a authority bilingual informant or translator "is consulted on the translation of various sentences, as ST items are changed to observe" what if they occur TL textual changes as a result. "

In regard to changes in translation, Catford defines as "formal correspondence exits in the process to move from SL to the TL "(ibid.: 73). Catford argues that there are two main types of translation changes, level changes namely where the issue of SL language proficiency (grammar, for example) has a TL equivalent on a different level (eg the lexicon), and category changes divided into four types:

1. Structure shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the structure of the ST and the TT;
   
2. Changes in class, when an element of SL is translated with an element of TL, which belongs to a different grammatical class, ie a verb can be translated with a name;
   
3. Each shift, involving changes in rank;
   
4. Intra-system shifts, which occur when 'LS and LT have systems which formally corresponds roughly to its constitution, but when translation involves the selection of a third term corresponding to the TL system. For example, when SL becomes a singular plural TL.

Catford was criticized for his linguistic theory of translation. One of the most scathing criticism came from Snell-Hornby (1988), who argued that the definition of equivalence Catford textual is "circular", the dependence of his theory of bilingual informants "totally insufficient", and example sentences "isolated and even absurdly simplistic. "She believes that the concept of equivalence in translation as an illusion. She says the translation process can not be reduced merely a linguistic exercise, as stated in Catford, for example, because there are other factors, such as textual aspects, and cultural situation which should be considered when translating. In other words, he does not believe that linguistics is the only discipline that allows people to carry out a translation, since it implies translation of different cultures and different situations, while not always consistent from one language to another.

1.5 House and the development of overt and covert translation

House (1977) is in favor of semantic and pragmatic equivalence, and argues that ST and TT should match one another in office. House suggests that it is possible to characterize the role of a text by determining the dimensions of the ST.In the fact situation, according to his theory, every text is itself placed in a situation which must be properly identified and taken into account by the translator. After analysis of the ST segment, the House is able to evaluate a translation, if the ST and TT differ substantially from the characteristics of the situation, then they are functionally equivalent, and the translation is not of high quality. In fact, she recognizes that "the translation of a text should not only match with its source text in function, but employ equivalent of the situation dimensional means to achieve that function. "

Central to the discussion of House is the concept of overt and covert translations. In a translation TT open to the public is not directly addressed and therefore not needs everyone to try to create a "second original" translation from an open 'openly must be a translation. "covert translation, moreover, means the production of a text that is functionally equivalent to the ST. House also argues that in this kind of translation of the TS 'is not specifically intended for a CT scan.

Playhouse types of ST, which would probably give the translation of the two categories. An academic article, For example, it is unlikely that special features of the SC, the article has the same argumentative or expository force it would if it had originated in the TL, and the fact that this is all a translation need not be disclosed to readers. A political discourse in the SC, on the other hand, goes to a cultural group national or particular that he intended to take action or influence, while the TT is not limited to reporting what the speaker is telling his constituents. Clearly, in this case, which is an open instance of translation, functional equivalence can not be maintained, and it is intended that the ST and function TT differently.
House of the theory of equivalence in translation seems to be much more flexible than Catford. In fact, it gives real examples, use Full texts and, more important, is related to linguistic features in the context of the source and target text.

1.6 Approach Baker to translation equivalence

New adjectives have been assigned to the notion of equivalence (grammatical, textual, pragmatic equivalence, and several others) and made his appearance in the plethora of recent works in this field. A very interesting discussion of the notion of equivalence can be found in Baker (1992), which appears to offer a more detailed list of conditions in which the concept of equivalence can be defined. It explores the notion of equivalence at different levels, in connection with the translation process, including all different aspects of translation and therefore meet the linguistic and the communicative approach. It distinguishes between:

• Equivalence can appear word for word level and above, when translating from one language to another. Baker acknowledges that, in an approach bottom-up translation, word-level equivalence is the first element to be taken into account by the translator. In fact, when the translator starts the analysis of the TS s / look at the words as individual units to find a direct equivalent term 'in the TL. Baker gives a definition of word, it must be remembered that a single word can sometimes be assigned different meanings in different languages and can be considered a more complex unit or morpheme. This means that the translator should pay attention to a number of factors when considering a single word, such as number, gender and tense.

• Grammar equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories across languages. It is noted that grammatical rules may vary depending on the language and this may pose some problems in terms of finding a direct correspondence in the TL. In fact, she asserts that different grammatical structures in the SL and TL can produce significant changes in the way that information or message is carried through. These changes may lead the translator to either add or omit information in the TT due to the lack of certain TL grammatical resources in itself. These devices may cause grammatical problems in translation Baker focuses on number, tense and aspect, voice, person and gender.

• Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion. The texture is a very important feature in the translation, as it provides useful guidelines for understanding and analysis of the ST that may help the translator in its attempt to produce a cohesive and coherent text for the hearing of CT in a specific context. It depends on the translator to decide whether to keep or not the bonds of cohesion and the coherence of the original text. Their decision will be guided by three main factors, namely, the target audience, the purpose of translation and type of text.

• Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and avoidance strategies during the translation process. Implicature does not is about what is said explicitly, but what is implicit. Therefore, the translator has to work the implicit meanings in translation in order to get the message across ST. The role of the translator is to recreate the author's intention in another culture, so that TC allows the reader to understand clearly.

Postcolonialism and multiculturalism

Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak in 1993 was introduced postcolonialism. Post-colonialism is one of the most flourishing of contact between Cultural Studies and Translation Studies. It can be defined as a broad cultural approach for the study of power relations between different groups, cultures or peoples in which language, literature and translation may play a role. Spivak's work indicative of how cultural studies and especially post-colonialism in the last decade focused on issues of translation, translation and colonization. The linking of colonization and the translation is accompanied by the argument that translation has played an active role in the colonization process and the dissemination of an ideological image of the colonized peoples. The metaphor was used in the colony as a copy of translation of imitation and inferior, whose identity superscript has been suppressed by the colonizer.

Postcolonial concepts can be brought forward a vision of translation as a mere deleterious settlers who imposed their language and translation was used to construct a distorted image of the repressed people reinforced the hierarchical structure of the colony. However, some critics of post-colonialism, like Robinson, believes the point of view of translation as a purely harmful and pernicious tool of empire is inaccurate.

Like other cultural theorists, Venuti in 1995, insisted that the field of translation studies should be extended to take account the value for money of a framework of socio-cultural nature. Invisibility used the term to describe the situation as a translator and activity in the Anglo-American culture. He said that this invisibility is produced by:

1 – The way that translators tend to translate fluently in English, to produce an easy language and TT reading, creating the illusion of transparency.

2 – The way the translated texts are usually read in the target culture:

"A translated text, prose or poetry or nonfiction, is considered acceptable by most publishers, reviewers and readers, when read with fluency, when the absence of linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent, giving the appearance that reflects the foreign writer's personality or intention or meaning essential foreign policy text_ the appearance, in other words, the translation is not really a translation, but the original. "

(Venuti, 1999)

Venuti discussed the invisible hand of the hand with two types of translation strategies: domestication and denationalization. Domestication considered as dominant Anglo-American (TL) culture of translation. Just as postcolonial is alert to the cultural effects of the different relationships of power between the colony and ex-colony, so Venuti lamented the phenomenon of domestication, as it involves the reduction of foreign text into the language of values cultural. This involves the translation of a transparent, fluid, invisible style so as to minimize the strangeness of the TT. Venuti believes that a translator must leave the reader in peace, as much as possible, and should move the author towards him.

Foregnization, on the other hand, involves the choice of a text Foreign language and the development of a method of translation along the lines that excludes dominant cultural values in the target language. Ventuti believes that the method foreignizing to abnormal pressure in the target language ethno cultural values to the registry of cultural difference and language of the text abroad, sending the reader abroad. According to him, is very convenient in an effort to curb the ethnocentric violence of translation. Foreignizing method of translation, a strategy Venuti also called "submersible, is not a fluid or style of the translation alienating designed to make visible the persistence of translator, putting highlighted the foreign identity of ST and protects it from the ideological domination of the target culture.

In his later book 'scandal Venuti Translation of 'alienating or stressed, even as he called it,' minoritizing 'Translatin, discourse to cultivate a diverse and heterogeneous. With respect to language, minoritizing or foriegnizing Venuti translation method is through the deliberate inclusion of "foreign elements in an attempt to make visible and the translator for the reader to realize that you are reading a translation of the work of a foreign culture. Foreignization is close to ST adherent structure and syntax.

Venuti also said that the terms can change meaning over time and location.

In 1996, Simon said that cultural studies brings to the translation of the understanding of the complexities of gender and culture and allows us to situate language transfer. It is considered a language of sexism in translation studies, with her image of domination, fidelity, loyalty and betrayal. He mentioned XVII century image of "Les Belles infidels" (unbelievers beauties), translations in French, which were artistically beautiful, but unfaithful. She went further and researched by George Steiner male-oriented image of translation as penetration.

The feminist theorists, more or less, I see a parallel between the situation of the translation, which is often considered derivative and inferior to the original writing and that of women who are often repressed in society and literature. This translation is the core of feminist theory seeks to identify and critique of the tangle of concepts that relegate women and translation into the bottom of the social and the literary ladder. Simon will present more on the concept of translation project tasks. Translation projects here can be defined as: A approach to literary translation in which feminist translators openly advocate and implement strategies (linguistic or otherwise) in the foreground the feminist the translated text. It may seem worth mentioning that contrary to the translation of the draft gender occurs when translated works marked so that affected their distinctive characteristics.

With the spread of deconstruction and cultural studies in academia, the topic of ideology became a important area of study. The field of translation studies presents no exception to this general trend. We should also mention that the concept of ideology is not new and has been an area of interest a long time. The problem with talking about translation and ideology is one of definition. There are many definitions of the ideology that is impossible to review all messages. For example, as Hatim and Mason (1997) argued that ideology encompasses the tacit assumptions, beliefs and value systems that are shared by all social groups. They make a distinction between the ideology of translation and the translation of ideology. While the former is refers to the basic orientation chosen by the translator working within a social and cultural context. In the translation of ideology that examined the degree of mediation performed by a sensitive text translator. Here mediation is defined as the extent to which translators intervene in the transfer process, the feeding of their own knowledge and beliefs in text processing.

In 1999 Hermans said that culture refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life. According to him, the translation can and should be recognized as a social phenomenon, a cultural practice. He said that we bring to translation both cognitive and normative expectations, that are continually being negotiated, confirmed, adjusted and modified by the practice of translators and all having to do with translation. These results expectations of communication within the translation system, for example, among the current translations and statements about translation, and between the system translation and other social systems.

In 2002, on cultural translation Hervey and Higgins believes that cultural translation more literal one. According them, accepting the literal translation means no cultural translation operation. But obviously there are some major obstacles that language. They are the cultural barriers and here a transposition into the culture is necessary.

According to Hervey & Higgins has a scale cultural transposition of grades that the choice of traits to indigenous culture and the target language instead of the features that have their roots in the culture of origin. The result foreign films here is reduced and the target text is to some extent by naturalization. The scale here is an extreme, which relies heavily on culture of origin (exotic) at the other end which is mainly based on the target culture (cultural transplantation):

Exoticism

Exoticism 1)
The degree of adaptation is very low here. The translation leads to the cultural and grammar from SL to TL. It is very close to the transfer.

2) modeled
Calco TL includes words, but in the structure of SL therefore unidiomatic While the target reader, but is best known, largely.

3) Cultural loans
It is the transfer of literally ST expression in TT. No adaptation of expression in ways SL TL. After a while tend become a standard in terms TL. Cultural borrowing is very common in history, legal, social, political texts, for example, "The" langue " and parole in linguistics.

4) communicative translation
Communicative translation is generally taken for culture topics specifics such as idioms, proverbs, staring, etc. In such cases, substitute word translator, SL, with an existing concept in the target culture. In cultural meaning propositional substitution is not the same, but has a similar impact on target reader. The literal translation here may sound funny. The degree of Using this strategy sometimes depends on the license that is given to the translator by the commissioners and also the purpose of translation.

5) Culture Transplantation
The whole text is rewritten in the target culture. The TL word is not a literal equivalent but have similar cultural connotations to some extent. It's another kind of end, but towards the target culture and the whole concept is transplanted into TL. A translation should avoid both normal and exotic cultural transplant.

In 2004, Nico Wiersema in his essay "Globalization and the translation," said globalization is bound to be a language English French, the language is said to is used at conferences (interpreting) and seen as the main language in the new technologies. The use of English as global language is an important trend in the communication world. Globalization is also related to the field of Translation Studies. Moreover, globalization is in the context changes in the economy, science, technology and society. Globalization and technology are very useful for translators in which translators have more access to online information, such as dictionaries of lesser-known languages. According to him, these comments can be extended to readers of the translations. If the text destination be challenging for a reader, the Internet can help you understand the foreign elements in the text. Thus, the text can be written in a more foreignising / Form exoticising. He mentioned a relatively new trend in which culture bound elements (some might say, untranslatable), not translated. He believed This trend contributes to learning and understanding foreign cultures. Context explains the culture, and adopting (not necessarily adapting) a selection of words enriches the target text, makes it more exotic and therefore more interesting for those who want to learn more about the culture in question. Finally, these new words may find their way into the target language dictionaries. The translators have contributed to enrich their own language with words borrowed from the language of origin (especially English).

We consider these words from entering TL as an important aspect of translation. Translation brings cultures close. He stated that in this century, the globalization process is moving faster than ever and there is no indication that will stop in the short term. In each translation there will be some distortion between cultures. The translator will have to defend the decisions he / she does, but there is now an option to include more foreign words in target texts. Therefore, SL is now possible to maintain cultural elements in texts of destination. In each translation there will be some distortion between cultures. The translator will have to defend the decisions he / she does, but there is now an option to include more foreign words destination in the texts.

The relationship between multiculturalism and postcolonialism seems to be an uncomfortable one. Multiculturalism is concerned with theories of difference, but unlike the post-colonialism, which is largely perceived to be defined by its specific historical legacies retroactively, multiculturalism is charge of management (often endangered) of the contemporary geo-political diversity in the former imperial centers and their former colonies alike. It is also increasingly global discourse, since it takes into account the flow of migrants, refugees, diasporas and their relations with nation states. The reason for continuing focus on multiculturalism, in particular a critical multiculturalism is precisely because it is so intimately linked to many parts of the world with the practices managing and speeches (often in the direction of the police and control) 'diversity'. Within critical theory that has been a term often embarrassing to rely in part because it is viewed as automatically aligned with and hopelessly co-opted by the state as a function of certain types of conscious nation – building. As a result, for example, is constantly rejected by the anti-racist groups in Britain (Hall 1995). In the area of theoretical debate that is often associated with a political identity based on essentialism and claims of authenticity that resets automatically cover of sovereignty and a preoccupation with notions of reified origins. Thus, it becomes impossible, it seems, mention multiculturalism and socially progressive critical theory in it. But for all these reasons, it is a term controversial, is exactly why it's crucial to continue to scrutinize the discourses and practices of mobilization in the name of multiculturalism.

The Multiculturalism is to deal with minorities and therefore implies a relationship with a majority, however, how these two categories are defined and exercised in relation to others is controversial and further complicated by differences in the relationship between the advanced capitalist countries and so-called Third World, between 'settler societies and, for example, the European Community. In general, the factor of the organization of minorities are terms like "race" "ethnicity" and indigenism, while its origins are causally related to migration, colonization and other forms of subjugation. With regard to "race respect" would be more accurate to refer to the radicalization processes involved in the representation of minorities that the existence of the problematic racial categories. "Ethnicity" as a category that was initially defined as a term used to avoid differential "Race" and the implications of a scientific racism "discredited". Ethnicity is more easily connected to the European migrations that spread around the two wars world. In North America, phrases such as "visible minorities" have been developed to classify non-European immigrants who were part of diasporas mass, well encapsulated and native groups and descendants of African slaves who had been a concern recognized part of the "nation" during many centuries. Therefore, multiculturalism is often perceived as a disguised form of racial differences indicate. The need to deconstruct the "front" natural "of racialization is evident when one notes that groups such as the Ukrainians in Canada and the Greeks and Italians in Australia were appointed" in black "at various historical stages (Gunew, 1994). Other difficulties faced by indigenous groups are prominent in Australia, where Aborigines refuse to be included in multicultural discourses on the basis that these refer only to the cultures of migration, while in New Zealand biculturalism is the officer who prefer term because multiculturalism is seen as a deviation from the Maori sovereignty movement. First Nations in Canada are occasionally included in the speech multicultural and practices, and are always caught between the French-English divide. This has complicated ongoing debates about cultural appropriation (Crosby, 1994).

1. The discussion also should distinguish between state multiculturalism, dealing with diversity management, and critical multiculturalism used by minorities as a lever to argue for participation based on their difference in the public sphere. Minorities use a variety of strategies assimilation to overcome most of the assumptions of the multicultural state. Crucial to both areas is the notion of "community" and here the Women are particularly affected.

According to Nico Wiersema (2004), The cultures are closer and this is something that he believed that the translators should be considered. In the end, it all depends on what the translator, or more often, the publisher wants to accomplish with a particular translation. In his view, introducing elements SL Cultural:

to-read text more fluently (no stops)
b-The text remains more exotic, foreign
c-The translator is more near the source of culture
d-reader target texts obtained a more authentic culture of origin.

In 2004, ke ping regard to translation and culture of attention paid to misinterpretation and presupposition. He mentioned that among the many factors that can lead to misinterpretation in the translation are cultural assumptions.

Culture budgets deserve special attention of translators, as they can affect substantially and consistently for their interpretation of facts and events in the source text, without their even knowing it. We identified the relationship between cultural assumptions and misinterpretation of translation. According to him misunderstanding in translation budgets are often caused by a translator on the reality of the language community of origin. These budgets are generally culturally derived and deserve the special attention of the translator. He showed how the cultural work of producing budgets for misinterpretation in the translation.

According ke Ping "assumption culture" refers to the basic assumptions, beliefs and ideas that are culturally rooted and widespread.

· According to him, anthropologists agree on the following characteristics of culture:

(1) Culture is socially acquired rather of biological sexual transmission;
(2) Culture is shared among members of a community rather than being specific to one individual;
(3) Culture is symbolic. It symbolizes the means to assign meaning entities and events that are external to them and can not be understood alone. Language is the most typical symbolic system within the culture;
(4) Culture is integrated. Every aspect of culture is linked to all

About the Author

MA in TRANSLATION, Great Translation Theoretician,Mazandaran province, Ghaemshar city,IRAN

Ettore Sottsass – Work in Progress / Design Museum London